Exclusion or inclusion? An analysis of teachers’ words and actions in Pakistani classrooms

Over the past three decades, inclusive education has gained attention as a key pillar of equitable quality education. Despite the growing discourse, research in this field continues to focus predominantly on learners with special educational needs. Far less attention has been given to micro-level classroom dynamics of teacher-student interaction, promoting inclusion or reinforcing exclusion for all students. Little is known about how teachers’ everyday verbal and non-verbal behaviours, as well as peer interactions, contribute to inclusive or exclusionary classroom environments in ordinary school settings. Therefore, this paper explores in-depth insights of inclusion and exclusion as they manifest through teachers’ words and actions in Pakistani classrooms. The data is extracted from classroom observations conducted as part of a large-scale study aimed at assessing teaching practices in science and mathematics. The observers were engaged in a metalogue, which served as the data and analysed thematically. Results revealed three themes, including teacher-led exclusion, student-led exclusion and teacher-student relationships as a foundation for inclusive practices. The study proposes that inclusion and exclusion in classrooms are not discrete events, but interdependent and mutually reinforcing processes. It recommends diversifying teaching workforce, strengthening school-community linkages and making inclusive education as a compulsory subject in teacher education.