Reproductive milestones, use of menopausal hormone therapy, and risk of hearing loss: A life course study of 214 327 women

Objectives: The associations between female reproductive milestones, use of menopausal hormone therapy (MHT), and the risk of hearing loss remain unclear. This study explored these associations and the potential mediating pathways. Methods: This longitudinal study used data from the UK Biobank. The sample comprised 214,327 women aged 40–69 years without hearing loss at baseline and without diagnosis of the condition in the first five years of follow-up. Adjusted Cox proportional hazard models were used, along with sensitivity analyses, assessments of dose-response relationships, and joint effect analyses. The mediating roles of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and diabetes were also investigated. Results: Over a mean follow-up of 13.42 years, 5106 women developed hearing loss. Higher parity (≥4 children; HR 1.29, 95 % CI 1.14–1.46), premature menopause (<40 years; 1.27, 1.14–1.41), both shorter (≤30 years; 1.12, 1.02–1.22) and longer (≥45 years; 1.16, 1.01–1.32) reproductive lifespans were associated with an increased risk of hearing loss. Surgical menopause (2.71, 2.39–3.07) and natural menopause (2.49, 2.25–2.75) showed higher risk compared with pre-menopause. MHT use was associated with increased risk of hearing loss in women with typical-age natural menopause, but not in those with premature or late menopause (although point estimates were above 1 the 95 % CI included 1). CVD mediated 46.07 % of the association between parity and hearing loss, and 19.61 % of the association between early menopause and hearing loss. Conclusion: Reproductive factors (such as parity and age at menopause) may influence the risk of hearing loss in women. These findings suggest that reproductive history should be incorporated into hearing health assessments, and integrated health strategies addressing both reproductive and metabolic health may help mitigate the risk of hearing loss in women.